The residents of the City of Germantown have come to expect a quality of life that most communities never achieve. The citizens anticipate that they and their children will continue to enjoy a well-maintained community with large expanses of open space, pure drinking water, and clean air. The Sustainable Germantown Plan is a set of principles that will guide the City's policies and programs in maintaining a balance between growth and environmental stewardship by safeguarding pure water and clean air for its citizens, preserving the natural environment, reducing solid and hazardous waste, and promoting a sustainable energy future without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
The Sustainable Germantown Plan attempts to achieve three objectives: the first is to familiarize government and community leaders with the principles of sustainability; the second is to inspire the residents of Germantown to support sustainability; the third is to offer methods to achieve a sustainable future.
As of December 31, 1994, the population of Germantown was 36,599, according to Department of Development unofficial figures. The total area of the City at that time was 17.311 square miles with only thirty-five acres, or .055 square mile, in the reserve area remaining to be annexed. Ninety-six percent of the land, developed and vacant, in the City of Germantown is zoned for residential use, including single and multifamily dwelling units, leaving 4% for use as commercial property. Current policy indicates that this ratio will be maintained.
Presently, official environmental policies and programs of the City originate with the Environmental Commission. The Board Mayor of Aldermen appoints the eleven member Commission from among the residents of the City. The Commission's objectives are specified in its mission statement:
In agreement with the Environmental Commission's mission, the Sustainable Germantown Plan will set an example for Germantown's citizens and those of other municipalities through programs that conserve natural resources and promote energy efficiency.
The Sustainable Germantown Plan has three components: goals, policies and strategies. The goal-setting for the Plan took a participatory approach, with the Environmental Commission and the respondents to the Citizen Survey determining the Plan's priorities. The five priorities that became the basis for the Plan's goals are: 1) clean air; 2) pure water; 3) energy conservation and efficiency; 4) recycling and reduction of waste and; 5) preservation of natural resources. Some of the goals are already part of City policies and programs, some are mandated by law, some are a result of good planning practice, and some came from participants in the goal-setting process.
Once the scope of the general goals was set by those taking part in the process (Environmental Commission and Citizen Survey respondents), the task of collecting data on those areas of concern was undertaken to try to get a picture of where the City stands in terms of sustainability.
The policies found in the Sustainable Germantown Plan are descended from the goals, but are intended to assist the government in achieving the goals (Kaiser and Godschalk 1995). Each policy falls under the specific goal that it promotes. The policy, however, does not detail a particular action to be taken. That role is reserved for the strategies that follow each policy statement and describe how the goal will be attained. The strategies are the action component of the Plan.
Each of the five overall issues has been researched within the context of the City of Germantown. The goals, and associated policies and strategies for each follow, in the order in which they were ranked by the respondents to the Citizen Survey.
GOAL: A consistently pure drinking water supply relatively free of threats from contamination from hazardous waste or other pollutants.
POLICY: To protect the source of ground water for the City of Germantown, the Memphis Sand Aquifer, for the present and future generations of the City through the institution of the Tennessee Wellhead Protection Program.
STRATEGIES:
POLICY: To further ensure the protection of the ground water source from contamination by individual homeowners through an education program aimed at raising awareness of the vulnerability of our drinking water.
STRATEGIES:
GOAL: Local creeks, streams, rivers, lakes and wetlands free of pollution and degradation by man-made means.
POLICY: To prevent soil erosion and sedimentation, reduce contaminated storm water runoff, and prevent other inappropriate items and substances from entering the surface waters.
STRATEGIES:
GOAL: Clean air for the citizens of Germantown.
POLICY: To enhance the air quality of the City through natural measures.
STRATEGY:
POLICY: To enhance the air quality for the City through the reduction of traffic congestion and decreasing vehicle emissions.
STRATEGIES:
GOAL: An intact natural environment for the health and enjoyment of the citizens of Germantown, present and future.
POLICY: To preserve the natural ecosystems of the area for a diversity of plant and animal species of the Mid-South to endure and to enrich the lives of Germantown residents.
STRATEGIES:
POLICY: To promote parks and open space for the recreational enjoyment, health and welfare of the citizens of Germantown.
STRATEGIES:
GOAL: A reduction in the amount of solid and hazardous waste entering landfills.
POLICY: To reduce the amount of solid waste disposed by the residents of the City of Germantown.
STRATEGIES:
POLICY: To prevent household hazardous wastes from entering landfills.
STRATEGIES:
STRATEGIES:
GOAL: A sustainable energy future ensured by increased energy efficiency in all sectors of the City of Germantown.
POLICY: To reduce energy use by 10% throughout the City by the year 2005.
STRATEGIES:
Many players will be involved in achieving the sustainability goals found in the Plan. These include those appointed commissions that may have a stake in the results of the policies and objectives. Some commissions and committees that may have an interest in the Plan are the Environmental Commission, Planning Commission, Design Review Commission, Telecommunications Task Force, Senior Citizens Advisory Committee, Economic Development Commission, and Parks and Recreation Commission. The endorsement and/or adoption of specific strategies in the Plan by some or all of these committees and commissions will lend credibility to the Plan.
The staff of the different departments will help determine the success of the Plan. Those departments involved include the Department of Community Development for the planning, zoning, and transportation aspects of the Plan; the Department of Environmental Services for the Plan's water quality, energy, and household waste disposal considerations; the Parks and Recreation Department for the parkland and open space features and; the Finance Department for the components of the Plan that look to capital budgeting for implementation.
The citizens of Germantown will have a critical role in sustaining the City. The Plan will attempt to inform the citizens on the issues so that, with an understanding of the principles of sustainability and the positive consequences of some choices over others, it will be easier to achieve the sustainable goals and encourage participation in actions that will sustain the current quality of life for the future.
Because some parts of the Plan focus on regional cooperation to achieve a sustainable future, agencies outside of the City of Germantown will also play a role. The Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), which is made up of representatives from Desoto County, Fayette County, Shelby County and the municipalities within Shelby County, determines transportation policy for the Metropolitan Statistical Area. Memphis Area Transit Authority (MATA) oversees the transit system for Shelby County and also may be a pivotal player in alternative vehicle fuel use. The cooperation of the government officials in the surrounding jurisdictions will be necessary and they will need the cooperation of those officials in the City of Germantown, as well. Indeed, these and other players that may emerge in the future must work together to preserve the larger region's resources.
The decision-making body for the City of Germantown, the Board of Mayor and Aldermen will be asked to adopt the Sustainable Germantown Plan as part of the Germantown 21st Century Plan. Once adopted, the Plan can be implemented which will involve the cooperation of all of the players. Some of the existing programs that support sustainability will continue as before. Other strategies proposed in the Plan that can be accomplished with little or no funding will be implemented immediately so that the community will be able to realize the benefits of sustainability as soon as possible. Strategies that involve funding will be examined for economic feasibility as a capital project or as operating budget items. Some methods proposed for achieving sustainability will necessitate more research and planning. Flexibility may be required for finding alternative means of achieving the goals. Perseverance will be required for those goals that may take several years or even decades to attain. Strong support for the Plan will make implementation an easier task.
The final step in the process occurs in the future, but is as important as any of the previous steps. An evaluation of the process helps to maintain community support, detects problems and allows changes to be made. Examining the strategies' results will verify which ones have been successful in achieving specific goals. Each goal will be examined to determine which strategies have fallen short, which strategies need to be amended to achieve those goals that the community still desires, and which goals are no longer realistic and should be eliminated. Finally, a new formula for sustainability will be established which will renew the community's commitment for a sustainable future for the generations to follow.
The following chapter explores the concept of sustainability and applies them to the City of Germantown. A step-by-step guide for establishing a sustainable development plan is outlined. The standard guide proposes that a community establish its goals and assess target areas, after which support for the goals is built. Once a plan has been devised, the adoption of guidelines and procedures for sustainability is recommended prior to implementation and evaluation. This document also describes the benefits of developing a sustainable development plan.
The third chapter describes how the Germantown Plan was established and takes an in-depth look at each targeted area. The target areas established and investigated include the desire for pure water and clean air, a desire to reduce waste and preserve the natural environment, and the desire to become more energy efficient. This investigation led to the establishment of the City s Goals, Policies and Strategies.
To plan for a sustainable future a community first defines what sustainable means to its members. Once that definition is tailored to the community, then a plan for achieving a sustainable future can evolve. This chapter presents a model process for guiding urban development in a way that promotes sustainability so a community can enter the next century with goals that foster the well-being of the local and global environment. The Sustainable Germantown Plan is an adaptation of this model process.
Because planning for sustainability is a relatively new process there are different definitions of the concept and different approaches to devising a sustainable future for a community. One of the earlier articles on the subject of sustainability can be found in the September, 1989, issue of Scientific American. The article, entitled "Toward a Sustainable World," was written by William D. Ruckelshaus, Chief Executive Officer of Browning Ferris Industries and former administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency from 1970 to 1973 and from 1983 to 1984.
Ruckelshaus stated that sustainability is the emerging "doctrine that economic growth and development must take place, and be maintained over time, within the limits set by ecology in the broadest sense - by the interrelations of human beings and their works, the biosphere and the physical and chemical laws that govern it" (Ruckelshaus 1989, 167). According to Ruckelshaus, a sustainable awareness will need to be developed that promotes the following concepts:
Don Geis and Tammy Kutzmark, in Public Management, interpret sustainability as "the effective use of resources - natural, human and technological - to meet today's community needs while ensuring that these resources are available to meet future needs" (1995, 5). These authors frame the sustainability issue in reference to forces that make sustainable planning necessary. These forces include
In the May, 1993 issue of Planning, Timothy Beatley and David J. Brower define sustainability as "a fundamental organizing principle against which to evaluate all of a community's proposed actions and policies. It implies a search for creating ways of accomplishing change" ( 1993, 16). Beatley and Brower acknowledge that there are limits within which a community must operate for the environment to remain healthy.
A starting point for achieving the change in motivations and institutions, referred to by Ruckelshaus, is a local sustainability plan such as those already adopted in Seattle, Portland, San Francisco or San Jose. The last three cities listed have developed a planning guide, entitled Sustainable Energy: A Local Government Planning Guide for a Sustainable Future, for local governments who wish to prepare for a sustainable future. The handbook quotes the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development definition of sustainability as development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs." The three cities have defined sustainability as "managing today's urban energy needs without jeopardizing the needs of future generations" (Urban Consortium Energy Task Force 1992, 2).
The "sustainable" component of Seattle's comprehensive plan (Toward a Sustainable Seattle: A Plan for Managing Growth 1994-2014) is emphasized by the Vision Statement's declaration that "sustainability refers to the long-term social, economic, and environmental health of our community...Sustainable cities use resources efficiently and effectively...They minimize exportation of environmental risk. They provide physical and economic security, and they distribute these and other benefits evenly" (City of Seattle 1994, viii).
Sustainability is a principle for communities to live by that, when creating policies and programs, takes into account the environmental costs of economic activity to balance growth with the prudent use of resources. Decisions affecting land use, the environment, housing, transportation, social services and safety are made in an integrated fashion requiring integrated strategies without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Sustainable planning is not intended to benefit only future generations. There are immediate benefits for today. The most basic benefit to living in a sustainable manner is the cost savings, realized through using energy efficient machines, lighting, and building methods. It is much easier and more cost effective to become more energy efficient than it is to develop new methods of producing energy. According to Scientific American magazine, simply upgrading lighting by using more energy efficient products and taking advantage of natural daylight can reduce energy consumption dramatically (Gibbons 1989, 140).
A successful plan for resource conservation and energy efficiency can also be a source of pride for a community. A higher quality of life can be achieved in communities where sustainability is practiced. Contributing to that quality of life is cleaner air and water, less traffic congestion, and a community that is aesthetically pleasing.
With a successful sustainability plan economic development agencies, private businesses, and those involved in the harvesting of natural resources will also be exposed to the importance of sustainable development goals. Valuable public/private partnerships may evolve with a higher prominence for environmental protection as a result. As an inducement to the businesses and economic sector, there will be additional jobs as a result of the development of new technologies for saving energy and conserving resources.
Accessibility can be increased through sustainable management of land, and transportation and communication systems. Resources are saved and less waste goes to landfills when citizens reduce the amount of waste disposed, reuse materials whenever possible, and recycle waste rather than throw it away.
The enhancement of the natural environment is another benefit. The protection of the natural life cycles of plants, animals, soils, and humankind leads to habitat conservation, preservation of native plants and animals, erosion reduction, a feeling of nearness to nature, and opportunities for solitude and recreation.
With an understanding of the concept of sustainability, a guide for a sustainable development plan for any community may be developed following the sustainability principle. In general, planning for a sustainable community could be modeled after the following seven step process:
The Sustainable Germantown Plan is one component of the Germantown 21st Century Plan, a comprehensive approach for the growth and build-out of Germantown over the next ten to fifteen years. The sustainable development element of the Germantown 21st Century Plan is not limited to only the next fifteen years, however. It is intended to be a flexible guide to sustainability that is evaluated and updated on a regular basis.
The development of a sustainable plan for Germantown followed a process similar to that described above. As with any process, it was customized to conform to the conditions and resources for the City.
Establish community goals. In the first step, the process of sustainable planning was applied to the specific needs and desires of the citizens of Germantown to reveal a specific set of goals for the City. In establishing community goals, the process called for the determination of the areas of concentration and the involvement of the citizens of the community.
In Germantown, establishing community goals began with the construction of a preliminary outline of sustainability issues from the review of literature on the subject. The preliminary list of issues of concern included
The preliminary outline was then reviewed by the Environmental Commission. The Commission refined the outline to conform to the values and traditions of the City of Germantown as understood by Commission members. Refining the outline resulted in the elimination of some issues and the revision of others.
The outline was further refined by the responses to a Citizen Survey, conducted as a part of the overall Germantown 21st Century Plan. Some of the questions dealt with density, land use, traffic congestion and open spaces. One question in the survey asked that the respondents rank the five concerns expressed by the Environmental Commission in order of priority. The cumulative results of their ranking were:
These five concerns became the basis for the goals of the Plan. As a result of an evaluation of these concerns, a definition of sustainability for the Germantown Plan was developed. The Sustainable Germantown Plan is a set of principles that will guide the City's programs in maintaining a balance between growth and environmental stewardship by safeguarding pure water and clean air for its citizens, preserving the natural environment, reducing solid and hazardous waste, and promoting a sustainable energy future without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
Six goals (two goals for achieving pure water, one for clean air, one for recycling/reduction of waste, one for preservation of the natural environment, and one for energy conservation) were also established by the Environmental Commission and became the goals for the Sustainable Germantown Plan.
Assess target areas. Once the goals were established, the goals were assessed as they would apply to the City of Germantown, to the region, or to both. The results of this analysis are found in Chapter Three of this report.
Formulate a flexible plan. During this step of the process, strategies to achieve the established goals were expressed, but at the same time consequences of actions, political acceptability, time frames, and potential barriers were considered. The existing policies within the context of sustainability for the City were evaluated and a summary of possible policies and strategies to achieve sustainability was provided to the Environmental Commission and to the City Administrator for their review. After the Environmental Commission and the City Administrator had reviewed the summary of goals, policies and strategies, a plan of action for achieving sustainability for the future was compiled. The Sustainable Germantown Plan specifies strategies that can be acted upon immediately as well as suggestions for future action that can be taken to determine exactly where the City stands on some of the issues, such as energy efficiency. A total of twelve policies and 44 strategies are proposed.
Adopt guidelines and procedures for sustainability. The Board of Mayor and Aldermen will be asked to adopt the Plan. A public hearing will be held at the time the Mayor and Board are reviewing the Plan for adoption. This step has not been accomplished at this time, although the entire Germantown 21st Century Plan, of which the Sustainable Germantown Plan is a part, has been presented to the Board, but was not officially adopted.
Implement the plan. This step in the sustainable planning process can be accomplished over the next few months to several years. Implementing the Germantown Plan could involve establishing a coordinator of the Plan that could be assigned to an appointed commission, or to a City department such as Community Development or Administration. Financial resources will need to be located in the form of capital improvement funds or in the general funds.
Evaluate the success of the program. The final step in the process involves assessing the Plan's successes and failures. The results should be documented and goals that are achieved should be publicized to encourage the continuation of and gain community support for the Plan. There should be a review of the Plan's goals several years down the road that will measure the results of the Plan. Each goal should be examined to determine which have been fully accomplished, which need modifying, and which are no longer valid or relevant and thus should be eliminated. Finally, a new formula for sustainability should be established that will renew the community's commitment for a sustainable future for the generations to follow.
The Sustainable Germantown Plan defines sustainability for Germantown. It proposes community goals and targets areas of concentration as determined by the citizens of the City. The plan has been formulated and is ready to be adopted by the Board of Mayor and Aldermen. Some strategies have already been implemented but the appointment of a plan coordinator could facilitate the Plan s implementation. A future evaluation will determine the Plan s success.
Chapter Three analyzes each area targeted by the community s goals. The analysis reviewed the policies of City of Germantown, as well as the policies of Shelby County, the State of Tennessee and, in some cases, the federal government for their contributions to the sustainability of the City. This section presents the examination of the five target areas of pure water, clean air, the preservation of the natural environment, the reduction of waste, and energy conservation and efficiency, and methods of achieving each.
The Citizen Survey ranked "pure water" as the first priority in environmentally related issues for the City's future. Waters can be classified in two different categories: ground water and surface water. The protection of both affects the purity of the local water supply, thus there is a goal associated with each category.
The City of Germantown receives its drinking water from a deep, artesian water aquifer known as the Memphis Sand. The Memphis Sand, also known as the "500 foot sand," and the Fort Pillow Sand, or "1,400 foot sand" have supplied more than 3.3 trillion gallons of water to the area since 1886. The water supply is actually found in three different layers at different depths under the surface of the land. The three layers consist of the water-table layer, the Memphis Sand, and the Fort Pillow Sand. (There is yet another aquifer at 2600 feet, called the McNairy Sand.) The water-table layer is found closest to the surface (0 ft. to 175 ft.) and is composed of sand, gravel, and clay. There are some who tap the water-table aquifer for use in domestic wells, farming, industry and irrigation. The Memphis Sand (500 ft. to 890 ft.) consists of mainly thick sand and some clay. This aquifer provides most of the water for cities and industries east of the Mississippi River, and provides Memphis all of its water. The third unit of water, called the Fort Pillow Sand, is made up of sand and clay and is now considered a back-up water source for the Memphis area (Graham and Parks 1986, 6).
There are barriers between the units of water called confining beds. These are layered deposits of sediments - clay, silt, fine sand, and lignite - that are of such density that they impede the flow of water between the aquifers. These confining beds are not consistent in thickness and composition, however, "which results in local differences in the ability of the beds to retard movement of water from one aquifer to another. Principal confining beds in the Memphis area are the Jackson-upper Claiborne Group and the Flour Island Formation (Graham and Parks 1986, 9). The Jackson-upper Claiborne confining bed separates the Memphis Sand from the water-table aquifers.
According to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1981) there is plenty of ground water available in the area for the anticipated use of the next fifty years. Concern, however, has been over the possibility of hazardous wastes and other contaminants left upon, or buried under, the surface of
the land that may seep into the shallow aquifer and could be conveyed down through the confining bed layer to the Memphis Sand beneath it. The waters of the aquifer are replenished by the filtering of rainfall directly through into the Memphis Sand or by downward penetration of water from the shallow aquifers. A report by the United States Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.) in 1986 recommends that "land use decisions, including the selection for future municipal well fields and landfills, would benefit from a knowledge of the location of the greatest potential for leakage into the Memphis Sand, the aquifer of primary importance as a source of water supply (Graham and Parks 1989, 2,8).
The 1986 U.S.G.S. Water-Resources Investigations Report 85-4295 Potential for leakage among principal aquifers in the Memphis area, Tennessee found four specific spots in urban Shelby County where the clay layer "confining bed" is thin or missing. As a result, the possibility of the water-table aquifers leaking into the Memphis Sand is high. One of these areas is found along the Wolf River north and east of Germantown. The existence of these windows in the confining beds are determined by records from logs of wells in the area. The size and shape of the windows and the existence of others is not exactly known, due to the limited number of logs kept (Graham and Parks 1989, 39).
The U.S.G.S. reported in 1986 that there was "downward vertical leakage from the water-table aquifers to the Memphis Sand aquifer...probably greatest in areas where the Jackson-upper Claiborne confining bed is thinning or absent...Where the confining bed is absent, water moves directly from the water-table aquifers into the Memphis Sand (Graham and Parks 1989, 10).
The Tennessee Wellhead Protection Regulations (Rule 1200-5-1-.34) require that every Public Water System (PWS) in the State set up a two-zone protection system for its ground water source. Map 1 shows the established Zones for Germantown. The City was required to designate a "Wellhead Protection Zone" (Zone 1) surrounding all wells where contamination could enter the aquifer alongside the well casing or be drawn into the cone of depression of the well according to the Wellhead Protection Regulation 1200-5-1-.34(1)(f)2(i). Zone 1 is known as an eight week capture zone because eight weeks is the amount of time it would take for a contaminant to reach the water source from a certain distance, in this case approximately 100 feet. Another "Wellhead Management Zone" (Zone 2) has been designated surrounding the Wellhead Protection Zone for a forty year capture zone that is determined on the basis of ground water flow direction and recharge, where contamination is reasonably likely to move toward and reach the well within forty years (Sec. 1200-5-1-.34(1)(f)2(ii)).
The Environmental Services Department, the municipal department responsible for the City's Public Water System, and the Department of Community Development have been working with the Ground Water Institute (G.W.I.) at the University of Memphis to comply with the requirements of the Wellhead Protection Regulations that include informing the Board of Mayor and Aldermen (BMA) and the Planning Commission of the establishment of the Wellhead Protection Zone (Zone 1) for the existing and future wellfields in the City. Zone 1 is for short term protection and the BMA and Planning Commission have been informed of its establishment. When the final Wellhead Protection Plan is approved by the BMA and the Planning Commission, overlay zones will be established in the Zoning Ordinance. The process of drawing up the long term plan is underway at this time.
After the protected Zones are established, the Wellhead Protection Regulations require that certain actions be taken in the Plan to guarantee a pure drinking water source for the citizens of Germantown. The regulations include a Potential Contaminant Source Inventory within both Zones 1 and 2 that identifies possible contaminant sources. Section 1200-5-1-.34(1)(f)6 of the rule defines a potential contaminant source as any facility, structure, enterprise, function or activity occurring or present within a wellhead protection or management zone that may, as a result of either the normal or abnormal operation thereof, release to the ground waters any pollutant, material or contaminant substance as defined by the Tennessee Water Quality Control Act. The Wellhead Protection Plan should, according the Rule 1200-5-1-.34(1)(f)7, take into account and plan accordingly for hazardous chemical use, storage, spill response notification and contingency planning, public education and participation, proposed local ordinances, and proposed zoning changes.
According to the GWI "the Memphis Sand aquifer in the Germantown area is believed to be unconfined (University of Memphis Ground Water Institute 1995, 5). This fact, meaning that the protective, confining bed is absent above the aquifer, would require quick action to protect the water source for the City if an underground storage tank were to leak into the surrounding soil. The GWI has, in the City's proposed Wellhead Protection Plan, already identified twenty-four (24) underground storage tanks and possible contaminant sources. In addition to underground storage tanks, private wells, for residential and commercial use, are also present in Germantown. The GWI suggests that if any of these private wells are still in use or are improperly capped they could furnish a means for contaminants to reach the Memphis Sand. It would be difficult, if not impossible, however, to monitor all of these private wells due to the fact that all locations are not known.
Once the Zones are established as overlay zones in the Zoning Ordinance and the Contaminant Source Inventory is completed, a county-wide Management and Implementation Plan will be devised. This plan will establish boundaries for any Zone 1 in Shelby County where no new development could take place (100 foot radius from the well site). The protection of Zone 2, a much larger area, would be the responsibility of the Shelby County Ground Water Quality Control Board (GWQCB). Any development would require a "certificate of conformance" from the GWQCB, requiring certain protective measures, prior to obtaining a permit.
Because the City's forty year capture zones extend beyond the City's corporate limits the Wellhead Protection Plan requires a regional approach. The Management and Implementation Plan will include provisions to identify any changes within the two Zones on a yearly basis and a complete re-evaluation of the plan every three years by the municipalities served by the GWQCB.
Household chemicals and others used in day to day living such as pesticides, fertilizers, gasoline, automobile anti-freeze and motor oil can also contaminate drinking water if allowed to enter the aquifer. The City s Environmental Commission spends a good deal of time and resources on promoting activities such as Amnesty Day where household hazardous wastes are accepted for disposal, and other programs that promote alternative products and techniques for household cleaning and suburban gardening. The Commission s Environmental Reporter, published three to four times per year, continually draws attention to the wise use and disposal of hazardous products. Other local media sources could lend additional aid in this educational effort.
The protection of the City s and the county s groundwater will take a local and a regional effort. Within Zone 1 no new development is allowed within the designated local area. Because Zone 2 designates an area that extends beyond the City s boundaries, the Wellhead Protection and Management and Implementation Plans calls for the cooperation of Shelby County as well as the other municipalities in the county. In addition, the citizens of Germantown, as well as residents in the surrounding region, can be educated on the wise use and disposal of hazardous household wastes and the impact that chemicals can have on all water supplies.
The second water resource of concern to the residents of Germantown is surface water. Surface waters include the area s rivers, streams, lakes, and wetlands. Land development can displace great amounts of earth resulting in soil erosion and sedimentation. Sediment can contaminate lakes and streams and is considered a major source of pollution. "A build up of sediment destroys valuable resources, clogs watercourses and causes flooding that results in substantial damage to public and private lands. The result is a serious threat to public health, safety and general welfare of the community (U.S.D.A. 1977, iii).
Currently, soil erosion control is enforced through the grading section of the Tree Planting, Protection and Grading Ordinance. This Ordinance was established to create greater human comfort by providing shade, to cool the air and otherwise temper the effects of summer heat, to restore oxygen to the atmosphere, to reduce the glare and noise levels, to promote clean air quality by increasing dust filtration, to improve surface drainage and minimize flooding, to emphasize the importance of trees as a visual screen, to beautify and enhance improved and undeveloped land, to maintain the ambience City, and to ensure that tree removal does not reduce property values, all of which aid in protecting the health, safety, and general welfare of the of the residents of the City. In addition to the Tree Planting, Protection and Grading Ordinance, an erosion control ordinance could "establish uniform criteria for the design, installation and maintenance of erosion and sediment control practices [in Germantown]. In most cases, a combination of limited grading, limited time of exposure and a judicious selection of erosion control practices will prove to be the most practical method of controlling erosion and the production and transport of sediment (U.S.D.A. 1977, B-1).
There are many benefits to controlling the erosion of soil loss during land development and to soil conservation in general. An effective grading and sediment control ordinance can considerably decrease the loss of and damage to the soil. It can also preserve property values by conserving top soil, retaining the land s usefulness and maintaining the land s beauty. The risk of flood can be reduced and sediment can be kept out of the surface water, thus curtailing pollution.
Other items that can enter the storm drainage system and contaminate surface waters include pesticides, gasoline, diesel fuel, motor oil, antifreeze, paint, and paint remover. The automotive related substances can be found on the paved surfaces of city streets, parking lots and automobile service stations and are washed down the storm drains by either rainfall or during routine clean-up. Four quarts of used motor oil can contaminate one million gallons of water. Pesticides are used on residential, commercial and municipal property. Almost every household and/or business has some of these items on hand and special care should be taken in their use and disposal. The Environmental Commission and the Environmental Reporter have helped to raise the awareness of the damage inflicted by these substances.
The wetlands in Germantown are generally found in association with the Wolf River and the lateral ditches that drain into it. Agencies such as the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC) recognize the importance of wetlands for their socioeconomic benefits, their contribution to environmental quality, and their support of wildlife. Wetlands serve as flood and storm damage protection when they temporarily contain flood waters and slow the speed at which storm waters flow, thus reducing erosion potential. Local wetlands may also play a role in groundwater recharge for the area's drinking water. It is a known fact that wetlands filter chemical and organic pollutants and sediment from runoff (Burke, Myers, Tiner, and Groman 1988, 4-6).
The total amount of wetlands in Germantown and West Tennessee have been greatly reduced due to development. Until recently, a property owner could drain and fill wetlands without replacing them if the total accumulated area of the wetlands in the land under development was less than one acre. Recently, however, TDEC has been requiring that the filling of any amount of wetlands be mitigated with the creation of new wetlands or the enhancement of existing wetlands.
The City of Germantown's Zoning Ordinance (Chapter 25) does contain an article on flood district regulations that are required to be eligible for the National Flood Insurance Program. The purpose of the Article is to minimize public and private losses due to flood conditions in specific areas. It goes on to state that the article is designed to do the following:
One of the objectives of the Ordinance is to protect human life and health. The Zoning Ordinance regulates the flood fringe and floodway districts and includes penalties for violations of its provisions. These regulations attempt to reduce the negative consequences of altering areas that reduce flood hazards naturally. An amendment to the Ordinance to include wetland regulations can protect wetlands by including the following basic elements:
The inclusion of a wetland protection program in a municipality's zoning ordinance is the most common local wetland regulatory technique.
The future supply of pure drinking water for the City of Germantown is based on the protection of the region s surface and ground waters. The protection of the area s ground water can be achieved through the implementation of the Wellhead Protection Plan. Surface waters can be protected through erosion control and the addition of wetland regulations to the Zoning Ordinance. The public can be educated on how to dispose of substances wisely to prevent contamination of both ground and surface waters.
The residents of Germantown ranked "clean air" as the second priority in the list of environmental concerns for the City. Some pollutants commonly found in the air we breath, and could be found in the air in Germantown, are carbon monoxide, nitrates, sulfates, methane, carbon dioxide, and particulate matter.
Some of these pollutants are greenhouse gases which envelop the planet, warm its surface, and protect it from harmful radiation. Increases in greenhouse gases, however, are thought by many to contribute to an observed global warming trend. Since the mid-19th century, the trend has been toward a warmer Earth with a rising sea level. This trend has accelerated over the last 40 years, with sea level now rising around 1.75 meters (0.7 inch) per decade (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 25). It should be noted that the exact amount that greenhouse gases contribute to global warming is not known, however.
Greenhouse gases can also affect the health of those who breath them. These gases are released into the atmosphere as a result of natural and human activities. The major human source is energy production and consumption from coal, natural gas and all petroleum products. Thus, the more fossil fuels we consume, the more pollutants are emitted in the air. Sulfates irritate the eyes and lungs. Nitrates contribute to smog. When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it gets into the bloodstream, decreasing the body's oxygen supply. Particulate matter, which comes from diesel fuel and can be inhaled further into the lungs, is the most harmful pollutant (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 25, 96, 99, 101).
In general, the two major threats to clean air are automobile emissions and industrial emissions (Van der Ryn & Calthorpe 1991). There is no industry in Germantown to regulate. The residents and decision makers in the City can have an impact on automobile emissions, and thus air quality, by planting trees to filter pollutants from the air, by switching to alternative fuels for automobiles, and through the reduction in the use of automobiles and the easing of traffic congestion.
A passive technique for improving air quality is the planting of new trees and the protection of existing trees. Trees absorb carbon dioxide and according to the U.S. Forest Service "trees can also remove polluting particulates from the air as well as nitrogen oxides, airborne ammonia, and sulfur dioxide (Moll 1989, 23). Trees also give off oxygen, thus replenishing our air supply while removing pollutants. Particulate matter is removed by trees, as well: "leaves capture dust, holding it in place until rainfall washes it to the ground. In addition, trees reduce the wind velocity, allowing the dust particles to settle out (Van der Ryn and Calthorpe 1991, 159).
The City of Germantown has taken steps to improve its air quality. The City s Tree Planting, Protection and Grading Ordinance provides a mechanism to manage the trees in the City. In part, its intent is to "restore oxygen to the atmosphere... and to promote clean air by increasing dust filtration" (City of Germantown Code of Ordinances). The Ordinance requires that all development plans submitted to the Planning Commission, including subdivision plats and site plans, include a tree plan that designates all trees of ten inches or greater at diameter breast height (DBH) that are to be removed and that are to be preserved. If the approved tree plan is not adhered to by removing trees designated for preservation, then the developer must replace any tree at a ratio equal to the number of inches contained in the diameter of the tree removed. For example, if a twenty-four inch tree is removed, eight trees with a DBH of three inches will be required to replace the tree that was removed.
There are more direct ways of reducing automobile emissions that take some ingenuity and desire on the part of citizens and government agencies. One option includes the development and use of alternative fuels.
Alternative, clean burning vehicle fuels can enhance air quality and reduce the country's dependence on imported petroleum. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) identified six alternative transportation fuels that have potential. These fuels include three gases - hydrogen, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas; two alcohols - methanol and ethanol; and electricity.
The use of electricity as an alternative transportation fuel is unique among the options listed in EPACT. "Mechanical power is derived directly from [electricity], whereas the other alternative fuels release stored chemical energy through combustion to provide mechanical power (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 48). The batteries that power electric vehicles have to be recharged, however. The good news, according to the Electric Power Research Institute, is that the infrastructure for electric vehicles is 98% in place in the form of power plants, transmission lines and substations. "The remaining 2% [of the infrastructure will come from] developing the connection from the [distribution] grid to the vehicle and determining how recharging might affect the [distribution] grid (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 66). Currently, developments are taking place in providing fast charging vehicles to reduce the six to eight hour recharge necessary. The short range of electric vehicles is another disadvantage, but convenient recharging at home, workplace, and public locations are being researched (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 66). This alternative could become a reality in Germantown, not only for the City s fleet, but for personal vehicles, as well. Because it is not likely that the City will grow beyond eighteen square miles, the short range of electric vehicles is not as big a concern as it would be for a larger city. Residents of the City who do not travel far beyond the City s boundaries could also take advantage of an electrically powered vehicle.
Hydrogen is an attractive alternative transportation fuel because of its clean-burning qualities and the wide number of resources available from which to create it. However, no distribution system exists that postpones its widespread availability for at least a decade (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 47).
Natural gas has an extensive distribution system already in place, including Germantown. Natural gas pipelines extend to every continental state. This fuel is appealing because vehicles that use it emit 85% to 95% less carbon monoxide and 32% less carbon dioxide than vehicles using gasoline. There is a savings of 40% to 50% per gallon of fuel and fewer spark plug and oil changes necessary with natural gas fuel, as well. There are some minor complications in compressing natural gas for transportation fuels use, but these are being resolved. The primary hurdle is the provision of refueling stations because the remaining infrastructure, the distribution system, is essentially in place (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 63-64). Memphis Light, Gas and Water Division is set to serve as a public refueling station for compressed natural gas, thus that hurdle is ready to be overcome for this area.
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is already widely used as an alternative fuel in commercial fleets. LPG is easier to store and transport than natural gas and also has access to a pipeline system, though not as extensive as that of natural gas and there is no pipeline system in Germantown. LPG's weakest link is also lack of refueling stations (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 47,63).
Methanol and ethanol are produced from natural gas and grain crops. These fuels cannot be transferred through existing pipelines due to contamination and corrosion problems, and there are safety concerns requiring different handling procedures. These fuels are most likely to be used near marine terminals, where transport is practical (U.S.D.O.E. 1994, 48,66). It is not likely that this fuel alternative could be useful or practical for Germantown.
Natural gas and electricity as alternative transportation fuels appear to be real possibilities in Germantown in the near future. The City could consider converting its vehicle fleet to one of the alternative fuels. The advancing technologies will help in cleaning the air and reducing dependence on imported petroleum products. Continued research in the other options mentioned may open up even more alternatives over the next ten to fifteen years. Improving air quality in the more immediate future can be accomplished through traffic congestion mitigation.
Approximately 60 percent of greenhouse gases come from automobiles (Van der Ryn and Calthorpe 1991, 158). One way to reduce the amount of these gases is to reduce the use of the automobile.
Traffic in suburban communities like Germantown has increased for many reasons. Some factors that may have contributed are:
Traffic congestion also generates negative effects other than air pollution. According to the journal Transportation Quarterly, traffic congestion obstructs economic productivity and competitiveness, and diminishes the quality of life in cities. Traffic congestion is an expensive dilemma, as well. More time spent in traffic means more fuel is used, more accidents occur, more time is spent traveling, thus reducing leisure time and increasing stress levels. The expense sounds overwhelming when one considers the Federal Highway Safety Administration estimates that "Americans will spend a stunning 8 billion hours each year sitting in traffic (Atash 1993, 508).
The Citizen Survey conducted as a part of the Germantown 21st Century Plan revealed that traffic congestion is a major concern of the respondents. One hundred five of the approximately four hundred respondents stated that traffic was one of the two things that he or she liked least about living in Germantown. Thirty respondents said that traffic on Poplar Avenue is one of the two things the City needs less of. Forty-six were of the opinion that traffic control is a major issue facing the Germantown community.
Traffic congestion alleviation has been addressed by transportation planners in several different ways, including the construction of roads and traffic control devices, land-use strategies, and Transportation Demand Management. Expanding or building new roads provides more space for more vehicles. Land-use strategies attempt to reduce the need for automobiles. Transportation Demand Management seeks to provide alternative to the automobile.
Until recently, one of the more common ways has been to build new or expand existing roads. This option is not as easily applied as it once was due to the unpopularity of encroaching into communities and, more importantly, the skyrocketing cost of road construction and right-of-way acquisition. The total cost of the six-lane Farmington/Dogwood connection (2.4 miles) was $5.4 million, according to the Shelby County Engineering Department, Division of Public Works. The widening of Germantown Road to five lanes from Poplar Pike to Stout Road and the reconstruction of the intersection at McVay Road is projected to cost over $2.2 million, according to the Germantown FY 1995 Capital Improvement Program. The Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) has projected that Nonconnah Parkway, from Winchester Road to U.S. 72 south of Collierville, will cost $125 million.
The City of Germantown has taken some steps to improve the quality of the air its citizens breath by addressing traffic congestion. The Department of Community Development has commissioned an Air Quality Analysis for the purpose of assessing the air quality benefits of signalizing three intersections within the City. These intersections are located at Poplar Pike/Hacks Cross Road, Farmington Boulevard/Kimbrough Road, and Poplar Pike/Germantown Road. The study determined that replacing the four way stops at the intersections would likely reduce the carbon monoxide (CO) emissions at those locations. There are plans in various stages for the signalization of all three of these intersections.
In addition to these measures, according to the City's Traffic Engineer, the fulfillment of the Major Road Plan, approved by the Planning Commission, could also help to improve the air quality locally. Parts of the Major Road Plan eliminate circuitous travel. The Road Plan anticipates the connection of Riverdale Road north to Wolf River Boulevard, the connection of Kimbrough Road north to Wolf River Boulevard, and the extension of Farindon Road west to Germantown Road South. Circuitous travel increases air pollution because more distance is traveled to reach the same destination, thus more fuel is burned.
Another planning technique for the mitigation of traffic congestion is the application of land-use strategies that reduce the need for automobiles. These strategies include the mixed-use Suburban Employment Center, the Pedestrian Pocket, the Traditional Neighborhood Development, and the Planned Community.
The Suburban Employment Center (SEC) locates several different types of employers into a few compact, scattered centers outside of the central business district. These SEC's have the appearance of a downtown business district and can be just as large. This type of land-use planning reduces the distance that workers need to drive to get to their workplace, distributing traffic into specific areas, thus reducing the amount of pollutants released into the air (Atash 1993, 511).
The Pedestrian Pocket (PP) clusters all land-uses such as housing, retail, office, recreation, and day care within a quarter-mile or five minute distance of a transit station. The compact, mixed-use development allows residents to walk, bicycle, carpool or take public transit rather than drive to their destinations. The intent of the Pedestrian Pocket strategy is to reduce the impact on the environment by consuming less land, generating less traffic, and producing fewer air pollutants (Atash 1993, 511-512).
The Traditional Neighborhood Development (TND) involves a core of mixed uses, such as office, retail, and civic, all within walking distance of the residential portion of the development. This strategy, too, emphasizes pedestrian access and is thus of limited size (Atash 1993, 513-514). These types of land development can been seen in the Memphis area in Harbor Towne and Cordova, The Town.
All three of the above land-use strategies emphasize high density, mixed use, compact development. The fourth strategy, Planned Community (PC), also proposes mixing uses, but at lower densities. The objective of the PC strategy is to "reduce the number and length of work and nonwork vehicle trips because some residents would live, work and shop in the same community (Atash 1993, 516). Germantown as a whole actually does meet this objective in that residents can find employment, shopping and a home in the community. PC's are not particularly effective in reducing suburban traffic problems, however. The housing densities are too low to support public transit and the shopping remains physically isolated in centralized shopping centers, forcing residents to continue to depend on the automobile for travel both inside and outside of the community. According to Transportation Quarterly, pedestrian or public transportation connections are obstructed because most planned communities have their land use functions segregated into large, single-use areas, placing commercial activity at considerable distances away from residential neighborhoods (Atash 1993, 522).
Existing land use policy and the Zoning Ordinance in Germantown exclude all four of these development strategies in Germantown due to the zoning designation of undeveloped land and restrictions on density. Total area in the City of Germantown is 17.311 square miles, including the 0.055 square miles remaining in its annexation reserve area. Approximately ninety-six percent of the Germantown area is zoned for residential use, either single family or multi-family, with the remaining 4 percent zoned commercial. According to the unofficial figures produced by the Department of Community Development for December 31, 1994, of the 10,622 acres zoned for residential development there are an estimated 1,513 acres (14.2% of total residential acres) remaining to be developed. Of the 436 acres zoned commercial, 118 acres or 27% remains to be developed. The current zoning designation is based upon the Germantown 2004 Report's long-range land-use plan for the City of Germantown. The Policy for Residential Land Use in Germantown states that "the primary land use policy is to maintain Germantown primarily as a single-family residential community by protecting the character and integrity of existing and future residential areas." An associated Goal of this Policy is to "maintain density requirements in all residential developments as provided for in the zoning ordinance" by "following the Land Use Plan and the 2004 policy of having 96 percent residential and 4 percent commercial" (Germantown 2004 Report). The policy for commercial land use in the 2004 Program locates all commercial development on major streets. The shopping areas for the City are generally limited to four commercial service centers. The original Germantown 2004 Report "discourages small neighborhood shopping areas designed to service only the immediate area."
The potential for the development of one or more of the land-use strategies exists in some areas of the City. A Traditional Neighborhood Development could be developed in the northeast section of the City with an amendment to the Zoning Ordinance to allow the development of a central shopping and/or office district within a mix of residential uses. The subject property is currently under one ownership but is zoned R Residential (15,000 square foot minimum single family lots) and R-3" Residential (10,000 square foot minimum single family lots). Another available site is in the northwest quadrant of the City with commercial zoning already nearby, but where, again, land currently zoned R Residential may need to be rezoned to allow for adequate commercial development to support the TND. These sites are located on a major roads where public transit may be available in the future. Pedestrian Pockets could also be developed on these sites.
Another common solution to growing traffic problems that may be utilized by Germantown residents is Transportation Demand Management (TDM). Rather than supplying more roads, TDM attempts to influence the demand for them. To ease traffic congestion and improve air quality TDM proposes several alternate travel methods from which commuters may choose to reach their destinations, such as carpools, vanpools, or to use their cars during nonpeak hours of the day. These methods reduce the volume of traffic and reduce the need to expand the roadway system. As noted above, community opposition, and the huge expense of road construction and right-of-way acquisition have hindered new road construction. Often in TDM, incentives are used to persuade people to move out of their single occupancy cars and into transit.
Incentives are an important consideration for any TDM program, as is the participation of the private sector. Good incentives are crucial to conquering the convenience of driving alone. A common reason people drive in their own cars to their jobs is that they need their cars during the day in case of a family emergency, to drop of a child at day care, to shop on the way home, or to run errands during the day. There are other ways to deal with these needs, however.
Amenities can be provided to workers to ease the inconvenience of leaving their cars at home. Amenities could come in the form of services such as day care provided on site by employers or within easy walking distance from the workplace and access to transportation during the lunch hour for running errands (such as the Downtown Trolley for those Germantown residents who work downtown). Coordination among employers in the Memphis Metropolitan Area and the embrace of Germantown employees would facilitate TDM.
Financial incentives have been the most effective tool of TDM. Simply charging for parking under the assumption that an employee s salary is adequate enough to allow for commuting can be an incentive. A transportation allowance combined with the abolishing of free parking would involve "the employer giv[ing] the employee a monthly commute allowance but charg[ing] an equivalent sum for parking, which formerly was free (Orski 1990, 489).
On a regional scale, the Memphis Metropolitan Planning Organization, Transportation Planning Section has produced an annual Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) and a Long Range Transportation Plan (LRP) that include a Demonstration of Conformity with the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. In 1995 Shelby County was redesignated to attainment status, which means that the air quality met the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for carbon monoxide pollution standards and for ozone. The LRP also refers to the City of Memphis Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) program for the inspection of vehicle emissions, the signalization and rideshare programs established for the entire County, and the allocation and recommendation of funds for mass transit programs. The I/M program could benefit Germantown and the region by reducing traffic and related air pollution through stricter emission controls, synchronizing traffic flows, carpooling and constructing public transportation improvements.
Improving air quality is clearly not possible for Germantown to accomplish alone. While the residents of Germantown can achieve some results through ridesharing and public transit, a picture emerges of a need for regional solutions to a regional problem. The Memphis Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) consists of five counties: Shelby, Fayette and Tipton Counties in Tennessee; Desoto County in Mississippi; and Crittenden County in Arkansas. Transportation Demand Management can be used in conjunction with land-use planning, the expansion of highway capacity, and the more efficient use of existing roads and programs to alleviate congestion and thus improve the air quality of the entire region. The private sector also must be a key player in a TDM program.
The City of Germantown is taking several steps to help to keep the air the citizens breath clean. The City promotes the preservation and the planting of trees. Traffic reduction is a central concern of many citizens in Germantown and could be alleviated through land use planning and TDM.
In a sense, all aspects of a sustainability plan relate to the preservation of the natural environment. The citizens of Germantown ranked this issue third in overall importance of the five issues ranked.
There are many reasons for preserving the natural environment. There is a link between the natural and built environment. They support and complement each other. The scenic beauty of a community is vital to a superior quality of life. The conservation of existing natural areas preserves biodiversity, providing a habitat for indigenous wildlife and local plant species. There are also recreational opportunities in open spaces and wild settings. Preserving these things now ensures that future generations will have them to enjoy.
A city is basically an artificial environment that consists of buildings, asphalt roads, concrete sidewalks and vegetation. The latter is greatly affected by the former three. Trees and vegetation in the urban environment provide many benefits that can greatly reduce the impact that the city imposes on the lives of its citizens and on the natural environment.
A sustainability plan attempts to preserve natural resources by minimizing the impacts of development on the environment. More and more often natural habitat is being confined to isolated patches. This isolation has been observed to increase the risk of extinction and the loss of species from habitat fragmentation and is associated with the disappearance of wildlife in the vicinity of human settlements. As open spaces are reduced in size and closeness, the habitat of animals and plants is also reduced. When an animal's range is reduced so is its chance of survival in the developing urban area. As fragmentation increases, the area of individual patches gradually decreases, the distance between patches increases, and the intrusion into the natural habitat continues (Soule 1991, 314).
According to Michael E. Soule, chairman of environmental studies at the University of California in Santa Cruz, "the best way to maintain wildlife and ecosystem value is to minimize fragmentation. Where urbanization is occurring, however, fragmentation is virtually inevitable, and one of the only practical measures is the establishment of corridors of natural habitat or linkages...that permit dispersal across barriers (Soule 1991, 319). Soule states that large fragments of open space are superior to small fragments and that the corridor principle allows continuous access between fragments and that development plans should minimize adverse affects of human disturbance to such sensitive ecosystems as heaths, wetlands, sand dunes and forests, he says (1991, 320).
Trees provide a habitat in which a great portion of urban wildlife lives. Squirrels, raccoons, opossums, skunks, reptiles and a myriad of bird species are common in many cities and often depend on the urban tree to survive (Grey and Deneke 1986, 107). "Wildlife exists as a by-product of vegetation and thus the manipulation of vegetation...affects the diversity and composition of wildlife populations. Wildlife - especially songbirds - add color, movement, and sound to the landscape, and thus can contribute much to the human habitability of cities (Grey and Deneke 1986, 108).
The Tree Planting, Protection and Grading Ordinance in part states that the purpose and intent of the Ordinance is to "provide a mechanism for the management of trees and other woody vegetation within the City. The Ordinance is based upon the premise that trees are a part of our heritage and our future and that they are an essential part of the quality of life within our City." It goes on to specify that standards are to be "established in order to create greater human comfort by providing shade, to cool the air and otherwise temper the effects of summer heat, to restore oxygen to the atmosphere, to reduce glare and noise levels, to promote clean air quality..., to improve surface drainage and minimize flooding,...to emphasize the importance of trees as a visual screen, to beautify and enhance improved and undeveloped land, to maintain the ambiance of the City, and to ensure that tree removal does not reduce property values, all of which aid in protecting the health, safety, and general welfare of the City" (City of Germantown Code of Ordinances 1981).
The Ordinance requires a permit for any grading, earthmoving, changing of the elevation of property, or removing of fifteen percent or more of live trees of ten inches or more at diameter breast height (DBH). The permit is required for any development of one acre or more in a residential development and for any commercial development. These requirements are meant to encourage developers to investigate alternative road alignments, and siting of buildings and parking lots to preserve valuable trees where ever possible.
The Design Review Manual, adopted by the City in 1989, addresses landscaping in its guidelines, as well. The Design Review Commission, created by Ordinance 1989-9, administers the Design Review Guidelines, including approval of development landscaping. The landscape provisions of the Design Review Manual suggest that plantings reflect the predominant vegetation of the surrounding region and that plant species should be native or well-adapted to the region. It further stipulates that healthy, existing trees should be retained and that grading and construction should avoid disturbance of such trees.
Another asset to the City, the Wolf River, establishes the northern corporate limits of the City of Germantown. The river and its banks provide a large, continuous natural habitat for many plants and animals. From its headwaters in Springhill, Mississippi, it flows 86 miles and drains approximately 500,000 acres along the way, passing through Tippah and Benton Counties in Mississippi and Hardeman, Fayette and Shelby Counties in Tennessee where it joins the Mississippi River at Memphis. Along this path are found wetlands, large forested areas, and many species of plants and wildlife (Wolf River Wilderness Area Concept Plan 1991, 3-5). These are but a few of the environmental and aesthetic assets that make the Wolf River worth preserving. The City has a Greenbelt Master Plan (discussed further in the following section) that includes the south bank of the Wolf River as a greenway to be preserved in a corridor approximately six hundred feet in width.
The encroachment by the human species into the habitat of the animal species cannot be completely avoided. Minimizing the fragmentation of habitat in Germantown through the preservation of trees and natural areas helps to maintain native animal and plant species. The protection of the existing open space along the Wolf River can provide additional space for the preservation of the natural environment for the benefit of plants, animals and humans.
There are over four hundred acres of recreational parkland in the City of Germantown. These parks include small, neighborhood parks and larger parks that serve the entire City. In addition to existing parks, the City has plans to acquire more in the future.
The Parks and Recreation Department's Strategic Plan expresses the awareness of the City's need to protect the environment and the welfare of its citizens. The Citizen Survey showed that the citizens have a preference for smaller, closer neighborhood parks. To its credit, the Parks and Recreation Department has developed over a dozen neighborhood parks and continues to add more. There are also plans underway to enlarge other parks.
The existence of over four hundred acres of parks in the City of Germantown is due in part to the provision in the Subdivision Ordinance (Chapter 19) for mandatory parkland dedication. Section 19-49(B)(1) of the Code of Ordinances (1981) requires a dedication of land, and/or payment in lieu of land, to the City for use as neighborhood parks for all residential developments. The mandatory parkland dedication requirement is a part of the subdivision development contract approved by the Board of Mayor and Aldermen.
In 1992 the City adopted a Greenbelt Master Plan that includes five greenbelt sections with additional fingers and greenways (Germantown Greenbelt Loop Study 1990). The total Master Plan loop is approximately twenty (20) miles long and varies in width. The first section, located along the south bank of the Wolf River, extends from the City's eastern boundary to its western boundary. The Master Plan describes this section as "heavily vegetated with rough terrain." The plan states that the first section is a top priority for environmental consideration due to the large amount of land located in the 100-year flood zone. It is also part of the proposed Wolf River Wilderness Area. This section of the Greenbelt, the Wolf River Section, is zoned "AG" Agricultural and is meant to provide for the continuation of agricultural activities and preserve low density areas. However, recent rezonings have allowed higher density commercial and residential development in this area.
Section Two, or the Eastern Utility Section, utilizes an existing Memphis Light, Gas and Water easement on the eastern edge of the City between Houston Levee Park and Johnson Road Park. The Southern Section (Section Three) proposes linking existing parks, schools and rights-of-way as the southeast portion of the linear park. It would include the railroad right-of-way, Fort Germantown Park, Franklin-Morgan Woods-Cloyes Park, Germantown Elementary and Middle Schools, and existing CD Smith Road.
The forth section, the Urban Section, utilizes pedestrian street crossings, and public and railroad rights-of-way that wind through the Old Germantown District. The Western Utility Section forms the western edge of the system using the MLGW/Texas Gas utility easement as its basic feature, but also includes Forgey Park. It includes both pedestrian and equestrian uses. In addition to the five major sections of the Master Plan there are three fingers proposed to connect outlying parks to the Greenbelt.
The Parks Department's strategic plan suggests that Greenbelt acquisition will be a priority for the next ten years. The staff intends to pursue funding sources such as grants, trusts, and dedication of land by developers in hopes of optimizing future development of the Greenbelt. Other smaller parcels of land are also targeted for neighborhood or specialty parks.
Germantown has placed a high priority on the preservation of the natural environment as evidenced by existing policies and regulations such as the Tree Planting, Protection and Grading Ordinance, Design Review Guidelines, and the Subdivision Ordinance s requirement for mandatory parkland dedication.. Further preservation of local natural resources could include steps to preserve the Wolf River Wilderness Area and to continue to pursue the Greenbelt Master Plan.
The fourth priority for the Citizens of Germantown was recycling and the reduction of waste. The argument most often offered for recycling is that we are having a "landfill crisis." There are other reasons for recycling, however. According to Adam I. Davis, compost and fuel programs coordinator for Waste Management of North America, there are economic and environmental costs of pollution and resource depletion. The real problem is not that we have to put the 180 million tons of material somewhere, but that the 180 million tons of material must be replaced each year. In replacing that volume of goods and commodities, strip mines are cut, forests are clear cut, and pollution is generated (1993, 188).
The Tennessee Solid Waste Management Act of 1991 went into effect on May 31, 1991, and applies to any municipality in the state that provides garbage collection services to its citizens. In the Act, the State has set a goal to reduce the amount of solid waste disposed of in municipal landfills and incinerators by 25% by December 31, 1995. Municipal solid waste can be defined as "garbage, refuse, industrial lunchroom or office waste, household waste, household hazardous waste, yard waste and other trash from community, residential, municipal, commercial, or institutional activities (Municipal Technical Advisory Service 1991, 2).
Section 35 of the Act requires that money collected as state surcharges at all Class I disposal facilities or incinerators go to the Solid Waste Management Fund for the purpose of providing collection units for household hazardous wastes. The Act states that the county is supposed to provide a collection site for household hazardous wastes, but for cities with populations of 100,000 or more in counties of 287,700 or more, grants are available to build permanent sites for the disposal of household hazardous wastes. One grant was to be awarded per year for the four fiscal years beginning with 1992-93. Shelby County does not have a permanent facility at this time.
An assessment of the solid waste and recycling programs for the City of Germantown revealed that the City's yard waste goes to a landfill in southeast Shelby County (Frank Road landfill). The household, commercial and municipal wastes go to a Class I landfill in south Shelby County owned by Browning Ferris International (BFI). The BFI Class I landfill is estimated to have eight years of use remaining, after which the City's non-yard waste will go to a Class I landfill in Millington that is estimated to be filled in thirty years. Both of these facilities charge fees based on weight and neither accept yard waste. The capacity of the area's Class I landfills indicates that there is no "landfill crisis" in Germantown, perhaps due to current recycling efforts.
The City of Germantown has an excellent record of diverting solid waste. Due to the City's efforts in complying with the State's Solid Waste Management Act, 41% of the City's household waste has been diverted from the BFI landfill. Yard waste has been reduced due to the City's efforts to encourage the composting of yard and garden waste and increasing participation in the City's grasscycling program. Records for 1995 show a very high participation rate in the City's curbside recycling program as illustrated in the following table.
1995 RECYCLING PARTICIPATION
|
Weekly |
60% |
|
Bi-weekly |
80% |
|
Monthly |
91% |
Source: City of Germantown Department of Environmental Services, 1995
An often heard reason for not recycling is that recyclable materials are stored away in warehouses and that there are no markets for recyclables. That argument has recently been discredited. According to numbers published in the U.S. News and World Report, demand for recycled commodities has surged:
RECYCLED COMMODITY PRICES PER TON
|
Year |
Newspaper |
Clear Glass |
Clear Plastic |
White Ledger Paper |
|
1993 |
$ 4.00 |
$ 8.90 |
1.80 cents |
$ 47.70 |
|
1994 |
$13.80 |
$13.50 |
2.62 cents |
$ 48.00 |
|
1995 |
$57.50 |
$15.86 |
3.32 cents |
$111.96 |
Source: U.S. News and World Report, July 17, 1995
Between May of 1993 and July of 1995, the price of used, clear glass increased 78% and the price for old newspapers increased an astounding 1,338%. Eighty-five new paper mills using recycling technology were built in this country between 1990 and 1994. BFI's revenues from recyclables went from $32 million in 1990 to $359 million in 1994 (Fischer 1995, 43).
A high participation rate does not necessarily mean that large amounts of waste are being recycled. The citizen survey showed that approximately 52% of the residents in the community were willing to spend more to keep their back door pickup, which may indicate that the cost of waste removal is not important to that portion of the population. However, a volume-, or weight-based garbage collection system may increase the amount of waste recycled.
As an incentive to reduce household waste, collection systems based on weight or volume have been tried in other cities. The dollar amount of a garbage collection bill can be tied to the waste disposal habits of the customer. A volume-based garbage collection system offers a pay-by-the-bag system that charges residents by the bulk amount of garbage placed at the curb rather than on a flat fee basis. A study of ten Illinois communities with volume-based fee collection systems showed higher recycling rates than similar communities with flat rate fee structures (Becker and Browning 1991, 97). Customers use specially marked bags or stickers for residential garbage with the price of the bag or sticker including the cost of collection, hauling, and disposal.
Another study, conducted by Lisa A. Skumatz, Ph.D., director of the Seattle office of Synergic Resources Corporation, found the following weaknesses in the volume-based system:
Even though volume based garbage collection rate systems are fair and practical, and can provide useful monetary incentives for residents to reduce waste, a weight-based collection rate system rewards customers at even the minimum service levels because the system is based on the exact weight of the waste and is measured and billed by that weight much like other utility services. Some advantages of weight-based over volume-based systems include:
Other popular features of a weight-based system include paying for exactly what is in the can, and not paying the same as someone who over stuffs his or her garbage can.
The City of Germantown Environmental Commission and Department of Environmental Services has begun to look in to a volume-based waste collection system. This step could increase the amount of waste recycled and reduce the amount of waste generated, in general. However, since waste disposal fees are based on weight a volume-based system may not be the most efficient. Perhaps in the future the technology for a weighing system on refuse trucks will make this type system more feasible.
The City has been dealing with household hazardous waste as well through programs such as the used motor oil disposal facility located at the Department of Environmental Services. There have also been discussions between Shelby County and its municipalities regarding the provision of a collection site for household hazardous wastes. Any future plans for such a site will be publicized in the Environmental Commission s Environmental Reporter.
An increase in the purchase of products made from recycled materials supports the market for recyclable waste. A Presidential Executive Order in 1993 "set content and purchasing specifications for federal departments and agencies in such product areas as paper, retreaded tires, re-refined oil, insulation and construction materials (Terrazas 1995, 44) in an attempt to encourage purchases of recycled products. Local governments have begun to enact written policies favoring the purchase of recycled products over virgin products, as well. Some of these policies may merely express a preference for products made from recycled products, while others actually mandate a certain amount of purchases with explicit content requirements.
The City of Germantown has been aware for some time of the importance of recycling and the reduction of waste in part through the efforts of the Environmental Commission. Germantown can review its current ability to recycle even more waste including toner cartridges for copiers and fax machines. Information bulletins and short seminars on how and why to reduce waste and recycle materials can increase the amount of office materials recycled and encourage the reuse of other materials. By ensuring that City employees understand the benefits of recycling waste and purchasing recycled products they can set an example for the entire community.
There are guidelines for purchasing recycled materials available from agencies around the country. Their sample policies can be adapted for use by other municipalities. A typical policy could include the following program:
With the growing concern for the conservation of the world s resources and where to put waste generated, the City of Germantown has placed an emphasis on recycling and reduction of waste through the curbside recycling program. The City is now investigating a volume-based garbage pick-up system. The City will very likely continue these type programs as well as the recycling of some household hazardous wastes. The City can also step up its purchase of products made from recycled materials through voluntary efforts or through policy changes.
One fifth of the world's population consumes more than seventy percent of the world's energy. Coal and oil combustion produce acid rain, which damages lakes, forests, structures and crops. Nuclear fission produces long-lived radioactive wastes. Automobiles fill the air with smog, which threatens health and property. Energy consumption dumps more than five billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere each year. The resulting accumulation of carbon dioxide, coupled with other greenhouse gases, could warm the globe several degrees by the middle of the next century (Gibbons, Blair and Gwin 1989, 136).
Eighty-eight percent of the world's energy is provided by coal, oil and natural gas with nuclear power providing most of the rest (Gibbons, Blair and Gwin 1989, 140). The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) provides electricity to the City of Germantown at subsidized, artificially low rates providing little incentive to reduce energy consumption. These subsidized rates are one reason that fossil fuels only seem to be cheap at this time. If the rates were based on actual cost to produce the energy then the cost to consumers might be an incentive to use less energy. "Some energy costs never show up on a utility's balance sheet or the customer's tab. The more measurable of the 'energy externalities' include the health and environmental tolls of extracting, transporting and burning fuels, and the military cost of defending fuel supplies. Other externalities include the hazards of storing radioactive waste and the security costs and trade imbalances that result from massive fuel imports (Tenebaum 1995, 38). According to the September, 1989 issue of Scientific American, "in 1987 the United States imported $40 billion worth of oil, an amount equal to one third of the country's trade deficit. During the same year, the Pentagon spent $14 billion to protect oil rights (Gibbons, Blair and Gwin 1989, 136).
Investments in energy efficiency can help us reduce fossil fuel demand without sacrificing economic growth. Application of existing energy efficiency technologies can save investment capital, buy time for the development of new supply technologies and ultimately make it possible to provide a higher level of goods and services at a given level of energy consumption. For example, a combination of improved lamps, reflectors and daytime lighting can cut the consumption of energy for lighting by 75 percent or more (Gibbons, Blair and Gwin 1989, 140). By systematically applying strategies to reduce energy consumption through model programs or advancing technologies we can become more energy efficient.
Programs exist to promote energy partnerships between local governments and business and citizens. One such program is the "Energy Smart Challenge," a national campaign advocated by the U.S. Conference of Mayors. The two phase program centers on developing strategies for cities to reduce energy consumption in city-owned buildings, and involving non-profit organizations, the business community and neighborhoods in promoting greater energy efficiency throughout the community.
There are five steps in the program:
In Germantown the first step would involve the Mayor submitting a Commitment Card that obligates her to assign a contact person and begin taking steps to complete the program. Step two determines energy use in municipal buildings and indicates areas where there are opportunities for energy savings. Activities include data collection on the total number of buildings owned by the City; the different types of buildings; floor space by building type; amount of energy consumed per building; and energy costs per building. The data is used to measure current energy efficiency and determines where conservation measures should take place.
Once the areas of concentration are defined, an action plan identifies overall goals, constraints, potential funding mechanisms, staff requirements and program monitoring. Assistance in implementing the plan can be provided through the Department of Energy (DOE) in the form of financial and technical assistance. There are two programs available:
In Step Five, Expanding the Challenge, the City would form local partnerships with other organizations within the community to participate in the program. These other organizations include neighborhood organizations, small businesses, non-profits, the Germantown Chamber of Commerce and the residents of Germantown. This type of program would also help to publicize the overall Sustainable Germantown Plan.
The definition of a Green Builder Program, according to the Green Building Subcommittee of the American Society for Testing and Materials is "residential, industrial and commercial structures that are designed, constructed, renovated, operated and reused in an environmentally and energy efficient manner (Scott 1995). The Green Builder Program would also involve different organizations. The City of Austin, Texas, has a Green Builder Program administered by its Environmental and Conservation Services Department. The program's goal is to influence building practices to become sustainable by:
This voluntary program certifies homes as green on a scale of one to four stars in such areas as water, energy, materials and waste. The more stars, the more green features are found in the home. For instance, a star may be awarded for the planting of trees in an appropriate spot next to a building because a temperature difference of sixteen degrees can exist between shaded and unshaded sides of a building. This temperature difference translates to a sixty percent increase in the insulating effect of the shaded area, thus providing a significant benefit in cooling the house.
The Green Building Program can provide a rating system for new residential and for new and existing commercial and office buildings. The U.S. Green Building Council has produced draft recommendations for a national rating system for green construction. The Council believes that "global and national environmental issues are of such magnitude and immediacy that the building industry must take immediate action and that there are significant economic, environmental, energy and public health effects attributable to building design, construction and management practices (U.S. Green Building Council 1995, 4).
There is not a Home Builders Association for Germantown, but the Home Builders Association of Memphis could promote this program. The Germantown Department of Community Development is in contact with developers and builders daily and could advocate a Green Builder Program as part of the Sustainable Germantown Plan.
Another energy efficient strategy for the City of Germantown would be the use of telecommunications. The Telecommunications Task Force has done considerable research into the opportunities provided by this quickly developing technology. As part of its energy action plan the City could include in its research, telecommunication opportunities that reduce the need for travel. The City of Portland, Oregon, included the following actions in its energy plan:
The Germantown community access television station already provides information regarding City meetings and other activities in a list of times and dates that is constantly updated and the City s Administration Department is in the process of setting up access to information about all City departments through computer access. The use of telecommunications to serve the public may have the added benefit of reducing trips and saving energy.
Presently, energy conservation and efficiency are more practical and economical than the development of new energy technology. However, in the future the use of renewable sources of energy may become more feasible and an energy plan should be flexible enough to be modified to include new technologies that may become available in the future.
Solar power has actually been around for over one hundred years, according to Charles Smith, in the July, 1995 issue of Technology Review. Design and construction of instruments for capturing the energy of the sun began just after the Industrial Revolution when engineers questioned whether an industrial economy could be based on nonrenewable energy. Solar power is not only possible, but very practical and environmentally friendly. Solar technology has over a century of research and development. It requires no toxic fuel, very little maintenance, and is limitless. According to Charles Smith, an adjunct professor in the Department of Technology at Appalachian State University, solar power has the potential of being directly competitive with other energy sources, making solar energy a likely source for electrical power in the future (Smith 1995,47).
A related technology, photovoltaics or PV, has been used in calculators and watches for years, according to Taylor Moore in the October/November issue of EPRI Journal (1994). This technology was developed as an energy source in space exploration. It has been used in other applications such as on streetlights, highway call boxes, microwave towers, and even on building rooftops as supplemental service. Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. More than seventy different uses have been identified by utility companies that can help to reduce the burden on overhead electric distribution lines (Moore 1994, 8).
Other renewable technologies include wind, geothermal, and biomass. Power from these sources is currently being generated in different parts of the country. Wind power is plentiful in states such as North Dakota, where there is enough wind to potentially supply more than a third of the country's electricity needs (Stover 1995, 70). Geothermal, or power derived from the heat of the earth, has been used in California, Nevada, Utah and Hawaii where it supplies more energy than solar or wind power (Tenebaum 1995, 38). Biomass technology uses organic crops as fuel and is becoming a realistic technology in the Mid-West.
Some of the strategies suggested to achieve some of the other goals can also benefit energy efficiency and conservation goals. Energy efficient transportation is achievable through the reduction of traffic congestion and the promotion of mass transit systems. Recycling and the use of products made from recycled materials also saves energy. Alternative energy sources are probably being used by individuals throughout Germantown. Solar power is used in residences for heating water and providing electricity. Almost everyone has some type of equipment that contains a PV cell. Wind power was probably present in the area when farming was the dominant lifestyle. Perhaps the wind will some day be harnessed again.
The Sustainable Germantown Plan has set six goals for the City of Germantown. Prior to
stating a policy and devising strategies to achieve those goals each targeted area was assessed in regard to what accomplishing each goal would involve. Each issue, including pure water, both ground and surface water, clean air, preservation of the natural environment, recycling and reduction of waste and energy conservation and efficiency, was researched to determine the benefits of each and what each would mean to the City of Germantown. As each goal was researched policies and strategies to fulfill the policies became clear.
To provide a consistently pure drinking water supply relatively free of threats from contaminants from hazardous or other pollutants the Wellhead Protection Plan is being implemented. An education program for citizens aimed at reducing the introduction of household hazardous wastes into the groundwater supply can also be implemented. For local surface waters to be protected from degradation soil erosion can be reduced by including erosion control and wetland protection regulations in the Zoning Ordinance.
To ensure clean air for the citizens of the City, traffic signals are being installed and vegetation is being protected. Methods for managing traffic congestion such as land-use strategies and Traffic Demand Management can be utilized. The Major Road Plan can promote direct routes to destinations.
For the natural environment to thrive, habitats can be preserved and native vegetation can be protected through existing ordinances (Tree Planting, Protection and Grading Ordinance) and guidelines (Design Review Manual). The Wolf River corridor offers an opportunity to preserve a critical natural area.
The reduction in the amount of solid and hazardous wastes entering the landfills can be achieved by continuing to recycle household garbage through curbside recycling and new volume-based programs aimed at further reducing household waste. Yard waste has diminished through composting and grasscycling. Businesses can become involved in recycling as well. Some hazardous wastes are now disposed of in the City in its used motor oil facility and can be throughout the County with a permanent facility for disposal of hazardous household substances. City employees and those doing business in Germantown can also become more aware of the importance of recycling and buying products made from recycled materials.
To help assure that there is a plentiful energy supply for the future, a goal of reducing consumption of fossil fuels can be established. Programs can be adopted that promote energy efficient buildings, telecommunications and alternative energy sources.
The existing programs and policies already in place give Germantown an excellent start on many of the strategies outlined in the assessment of what it will take to become a sustainable community. This report goes further in suggesting still more steps that can be taken for the City to become even more responsible in efforts to sustain its quality of life and to be an example to others in the region and beyond.
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